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Mechanisms A.I

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Expert systems were one of the earliest types of AI system. They are built around automated inference engines including forward reasoning and backwards reasoning. Based on certain conditions ("if") the system infers certain consequences ("then").
In terms of consequences, AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers ("if shiny then diamond") and controllers ("if shiny then pick up"). Controllers do however also classify conditions before inferring actions, and therefore classification forms a central part of most AI systems.
Classifiers make use of pattern recognition for condition matching. In many cases this does not imply absolute, but rather the closest match. Techniques to achieve this divide roughly into two schools of thought: Conventional AI and Computational intelligence (CI).
Conventional AI research focuses on attempts to mimic human intelligence through symbol manipulation and symbolically structured knowledge bases. This approach limits the situations to which conventional AI can be applied. Lotfi Zadeh stated that "we are also in possession of computational tools which are far more effective in the conception and design of intelligent systems than the predicate-logic-based methods which form the core of traditional AI." These techniques, which include fuzzy logic, have become known as soft computing. These often biologically inspired methods stand in contrast to conventional AI and compensate for the shortcomings of symbolicism.These two methodologies have also been labeled as neats vs. scruffies, with neats emphasizing the use of logic and formal representation of knowledge while scruffies take an application-oriented heuristic bottom-up approach.

The story is set sometime in the future. Global warming has led to an ecological disaster resulting in a drastic reduction of the human population and rising sea levels. Cities like New York City, and Venice lie in ruins. Mankind’s efforts to maintain civilization lead to the creation of android artificial intelligence. These efforts culminate with the creation of David, an android child (or “mecha”) programmed with the ability to love. Cybertronics, the company that created David, wish to test their latest creation on a loving couple wanting a child. They approach one of their employees, Henry Swinton, with the idea.

Android Gigolo Joe (Jude Law)
Henry and Monica Swinton are a married couple whose son, Martin, is dying of a rare illness. Hoping for a cure, the Swintons have their son placed in a state of suspended animation until such a cure can be found. The emotional toll of such a long, chronic illness nearly shatters the marriage. Henry agrees to bring David home to Monica. Although Monica is initially frightened of the android, she eventually warms to him after activating his imprinting protocol, which irreversibly causes David to feel love for her as a child loves a parent.

David, holding Teddy, and Joe in Rouge City.
As he continues to live with the Swintons, David is befriended by Teddy, a mecha toy, that takes upon itself the responsibility of David’s well being. Martin is eventually cured of his illness and is brought home. The two are expected to live together like brothers. A sibling rivalry builds between the two, however. Martin’s jealousy prompts him to manipulate David into more and more irrational behavior but Martin’s scheming backfires when he and his friends activate David’s self-protection programming at a pool party. Thinking himself in danger, David grabs hold of Martin, begging him to "keep me safe." David falls into the pool, taking Martin with him, and sinks to the bottom. Martin is saved from drowning but David’s actions prove too much for Henry; he wants David returned to the manufacturer.
Fearing that David will be destroyed, Monica instead releases both David and Teddy into the forest to live as unregistered mechas, warning David to avoid the “flesh fairs,” events where mechas are destroyed before cheering crowds by anti-mecha groups. David is soon captured and nearly destroyed at such a flesh fair and narrowly escapes with the help of Gigolo Joe, a prostitute mecha, who is on the run after being framed for the murder of one of his clients. The two become friends and set out to find the Blue Fairy, who David remembers from the fairy tale "Pinocchio" as a being who has the power to turn him into a real boy. If he becomes a real boy, he imagines, Monica will love him and take him back. Joe and David make their way to the decadent metropolis known as Rouge City, a somewhat futuristic Las Vegas, in search of the knowledge that will lead them to the Blue Fairy.

New York City now in ruins and submerged after the effects of Global Warming.
An oracular computer personality called Dr. Know eventually leads David, with Joe in tow on the run from the authorities, to his manufacturers' laboratory at the top of a building at the Rockefeller Center in the flooded ruins of Manhattan. He is greeted by his human creator, Professor Hobby, who is unsurprised to see him there. His creator excitedly tells David that his arrival at the planned destination demonstrates the true, 'realistic' nature of David's (artificially-created) emotions, because he was driven by his love for his mother and desperation to be with her. To Hobby, this proves that David is a success as a robot model and the line of David replicates will be fit for the general market. Disheartened, David leaves and falls from the office into the ocean, possibly trying to commit suicide.

New York City 2,000 years later.
David falls to the streets of submerged Manhattan and sees, what he thinks is the Blue Fairy, but is suddenly rescued by Gigolo Joe. At the surface, Gigolo Joe is taken by the authorities, leaving David and Teddy to find the Blue Fairy in the ruins of Coney Island. While there in the submersible, David finally encounters the Blue Fairy, a statue from one of the rides at the park. Naïvely believing it to be the real Blue Fairy, he makes his wish to be turned into a real boy. He waits for the wish to come true, repeating it into infinity, with Teddy by his side and is ultimately trapped underwater when the park's ferris wheel falls on his vehicle.

History
The field was born at a conference on the campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956.[9] Those who attended would become the leaders of AI research for many decades, especially John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, who founded AI laboratories at MIT, CMU and Stanford. They and their students wrote programs that were, to most people, simply astonishing:[10] computers were solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.[11] By the middle 60s their research was heavily funded by DARPA,[12] and they were optimistic about the future of the new field:
1965, H. A. Simon: "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do"[13]
1967, Marvin Minsky: "Within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved."[14]
These predictions, and many like them, would not come true. They had failed to anticipate the difficulty of some of the problems they faced: the lack of raw computer power,[15] the intractable combinatorial explosion of their algorithms,[16] the difficulty of representing commonsense knowledge and doing commonsense reasoning,[17] the incredible difficulty of perception and motion[18] and the failings of logic.[19] In 1974, in response to the criticism of England's Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from congress to fund more productive projects, DARPA cut off all undirected, exploratory research in AI. This was the first AI Winter.[20]
In the early 80s, the field was revived by the commercial success of expert systems and by 1985 the market for AI had reached more than a billion dollars.[21] Minsky and others warned the community that enthusiasm for AI had spiraled out of control and that disappointment was sure to follow.[22] Minsky was right. Beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, more lasting AI Winter began.[23]
In the 90s AI achieved its greatest successes, albeit somewhat behind the scenes. Artificial intelligence was adopted throughout the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis and many other areas.[24] The success was due to several factors: the incredible power of computers today (see Moore's law), a greater emphasis on solving specific subproblems, the creation of new ties between AI and other fields working on similar problems, and above all a new commitment by researchers to solid mathematical methods and rigorous scientific standards.[25]
1961-65 -- A.L.Samuel Developed a program which learned to play checkers at Masters level.
1965 -- J.A.Robinson introduced resolution as an interface method in logic.
1965 -- Work on DENDRAL was begun at Stanford University by J.Lederberg, Edward Feigenbaum and Carl Djerassi. DENDRAL is an expert system which discovers molecule structure given only informaton of the constituents of the compound and mass spectra data. DENDRAL was the first knowledge-based expert system to be developed.
1968 -- Work on MACSYMA was initiated at MIT by Carl Engleman, William Martin and Joel Moses. MACSYMA is a large interactive program which solves numerous types of mathamatical problems. Written in LISP, MACSYMA was a continuation of earlier work on SIN, an indefinite integration solving problem
References on early work in AI include Pamela McCorduck's Machines Who think (1979) and Newell and Simon's Human Problem Solving (1972).